Research library
A summary of current preclinical and clinical findings on commonly researched peptide compounds, sourced from PubMed and other published literature. For research reference only — not medical advice.
Most published evidence comes from animal studies in rats, mice, and dogs, focused on musculoskeletal healing — including tendon, ligament, and muscle repair — as well as gut and nerve protection. A 2019 review noted its potential for aiding recovery in hypovascular tissues like tendons and ligaments, though comprehensive human clinical trials remain limited.
Animal and cell-based studies suggest thymosin beta-4, the source protein behind TB-500, supports wound healing by promoting cell migration, new blood vessel formation, and collagen deposition. Research has also examined its role in activating enzymes involved in tissue remodeling. Evidence remains largely preclinical, with limited human trial data specific to TB-500 itself.
A 2006 randomized, placebo-controlled Phase 1 trial found that a single dose of CJC-1295 with DAC produced sustained elevations in growth hormone and IGF-1 levels in healthy adults, lasting 9 to 11 days. To date, no completed Phase 2 or Phase 3 efficacy trials in humans have been conducted.
The original 1998 study characterizing ipamorelin found it to be a highly selective growth hormone secretagogue, increasing GH release without significantly raising cortisol or prolactin, even at doses 200 times higher than needed for effect. Later rat studies showed dose-dependent increases in bone growth rate and body weight.
In a rat model of ischemic skin wounds, daily topical GHK-Cu reduced wound area by 64.5% by day 13, compared to 45.6% with vehicle alone and 28.2% untreated, alongside lower inflammatory markers. Human clinical evidence remains limited, with most data coming from animal and in vitro models of skin and tissue repair.
Unlike most research peptides, bremelanotide has gone through full FDA review and was approved in 2019 as a treatment for hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women. A 2006 placebo-controlled crossover trial found significantly more participants reported increased sexual desire after receiving the peptide compared to placebo.
Animal studies in mice and rats have examined this pineal-derived peptide’s effects on lifespan and aging markers. One long-term study found it increased survival among the longest-lived 10% of treated mice by 13% and extended maximum lifespan by 12% versus controls, while a separate study found it reduced tumor incidence in aging mice. Human trial data is limited to the parent extract rather than the synthetic peptide.
A 2007 randomized, placebo-controlled trial in the New England Journal of Medicine followed 412 patients with HIV and excess abdominal fat for 26 weeks. Visceral fat fell by about 15% in the tesamorelin group and rose by 5% with placebo, and triglycerides and the cholesterol-to-HDL ratio also improved.
A 1999 review in BioDrugs describes sermorelin, a 29-amino-acid analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone, as well tolerated and useful as a diagnostic test for growth hormone deficiency. It notes limited data suggesting daily use promoted growth in some children with idiopathic growth hormone deficiency.
A 2021 phase 2/3 trial in Barth syndrome, a rare mitochondrial disease, did not meet its primary endpoints in the randomized phase. In the open-label extension, patients improved their six-minute walk distance and symptom scores by week 36. Elamipretide has since received FDA accelerated approval for Barth syndrome.
A 2015 study in Cell Metabolism identified MOTS-c, a peptide encoded in mitochondrial DNA that acts mainly in skeletal muscle and activates the energy sensor AMPK. In mice, it prevented age-related and high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance as well as diet-induced obesity. Human data remain limited.
A 2026 study in Frontiers in Aging compared commercially administered intravenous NAD+ with intravenous nicotinamide riboside. It provides preliminary real-world evidence on infusion tolerability and short-term safety; metabolic outcomes were variable, and the authors call for longer studies.
A 2018 study in Biochemical Pharmacology tested small-molecule inhibitors of the enzyme NNMT, the class 5-amino-1MQ belongs to. In diet-induced obese mice, treatment reduced body weight, white fat mass and fat-cell size and lowered cholesterol, without changing food intake. Evidence so far comes from animal and cell studies.
A 2001 study in Endocrinology found that both human growth hormone and AOD-9604, a fragment of it, reduced body weight and body fat in obese mice over 14 days. The fat-burning effect was not mediated directly through the beta-3 adrenergic receptor. Human evidence is limited.
A 2008 study in Gastroenterology showed that the tripeptide KPV is taken up into intestinal and immune cells through the PepT1 transporter, where it dampens inflammatory signaling. Given orally to mice, it reduced the severity of chemically induced colitis.
A 2020 review in the World Journal of Virology summarizes the background and clinical uses of thymosin alpha-1, including its immune-modulating, antiviral and antibacterial properties, and argues that it deserves further investigation as an antiviral agent.
A 2014 phase 2, placebo-controlled study in Molecular Medicine gave ARA-290 to people with type 2 diabetes and painful neuropathy for 28 days. Participants showed improved HbA1c and lipid profiles and fewer neuropathic symptoms, and those with low corneal nerve fiber density saw it increase. No safety issues were identified.
A 2005 study in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism found that infusing kisspeptin-54 into healthy men significantly raised circulating LH, FSH and testosterone, pointing to a new way to act on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
A 2001 study in PNAS showed that blocking myostatin signaling in mice, including by overexpressing follistatin, produced dramatic increases in muscle mass comparable to mice lacking myostatin entirely. Evidence comes from animal studies.
Two randomized, placebo-controlled trials published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2015 tested afamelanotide in erythropoietic protoporphyria, a rare light-sensitivity disorder. Patients on afamelanotide had longer pain-free time in direct sunlight than those on placebo. It is approved for this condition under the name Scenesse.
A small 1998 placebo-controlled study in the Journal of Urology found that Melanotan II initiated erections in men with psychogenic erectile dysfunction; nausea, yawning and reduced appetite were reported more often than with placebo. Melanotan II is not an approved drug, and case reports describe serious adverse events with unsupervised use.
A 2020 brain-imaging study in 52 healthy participants compared Selank and Semax and found that each changed resting-state connectivity between the right amygdala, a key region for regulating anxiety, and the temporal cortex. Most other research on both peptides comes from Russian studies.
A 2014 clinical study in a Russian neurology journal compared Selank with the anxiety medication phenazepam in patients with anxiety disorders. Selank showed anxiety-reducing and mild nootropic effects that lasted about a week after the last dose, and it improved patients’ quality of life.
A 2006 review in the Journal of Neurochemistry notes that DSIP, first isolated in 1977, was originally considered a sleep-promoting factor. Its link to sleep has never been firmly established, partly because no gene, precursor protein or receptor for it has been identified.
A 2015 six-month randomized, placebo-controlled trial in the European Journal of Nutrition found that daily oral glutathione supplements raised glutathione stores in the blood and other body compartments. Natural killer cell activity doubled in the high-dose group at three months.
